Definition of the Elsewhere Principle in Linguistics

In linguistics, the Elsewhere Principle is the proposition that the application of a specific rule or operation overrides the application of a more general rule. Also known as the Subset Principle, the Elsewhere Condition, and the Paninian Principle. American linguist Stephen R. Anderson points out that the Elsewhere Principle is invoked by [Stephen R.] Anderson (1969), [Paul] Kiparsky (1973), [Mark] Aronoff (1976), Anderson (1986), [Arnold M.] Zwicky (1986), etc., with antecedents going back to [the fourth century BC Sanskrit grammarian] PÄ Ã¡ ¹â€¡ini, [19th-century German linguist] Hermann Paul, and probably others (A-Morphous Morphology, 1992). Examples and Observations [T]he basic case of competition in morphology can be characterized by the Elsewhere Principle: a more specific form is preferred over a more general one where both are in principle grammatical. By definition, competitors are those forms that can be used to express the same concepts. It is possible, therefore, that competing structures are generated in different components, in particular, morphology and syntax. A well-known example involves the English comparative affix -er, which must attach to short (maximally bisyllabic) adjectives . . .. This morpheme is in competition with the syntactic modifier more, which can in principle attach to both short and long adjectives, and is therefore the more general form. In the context of short adjectives, the Elsewhere Principle dictates that -er blocks more . . .. (We add (19e) to show that in circumstances where the Elsewhere Principle does not apply more can indeed modify short adjectives.) (19a) Bigger(19b) *Intelligenter(19c) *More big(19d) More intelligent(19e) Bigger means more big This classical application of the Elsewhere Principle demonstrates that a morphological complex can be in competition with a syntactic phrase. . . .It does not seem too much to say that one of the core phenomena of morphology, and perhaps of grammar in general, is that one form can compete with, and hence block, others. The classical cases of such competition involve inflectional morphology as regulated by the Elsewhere Principle. . . . [W]e have argued that there are many more examples of competition, which differ from the classical case in terms of the nature of the candidates and the selecting restraints. (Peter Ackema and Ad Neeleman, Word-Formation in Optimality Theory. Handbook of Word-Formation, ed. by Pavol Ã…  tekauer and Rochelle Lieber. Springer, 2005 Mapping Rules An idiosyncratic mapping rule need not mention a single morpho-syntactic terminal; it can also apply to combinations of (morpho-)syntactic material. For example, next to the mapping rules that associate TOOTH with /tooth/ and PLURAL with /z/, there is a mapping rule which relates [TOOTH PLURAL] to [/teeth/]. This rule can be formulated as follows, where P(X) stands for the phonological realization of a syntactic entity X: If PLURAL selects (a category headed by) TOOTH,then P(TOOTH, PLURAL) /teeth/ Since this mapping rule is more specific than the one that only mentions PLURAL, the elsewhere principle states that the latter is blocked where the former can apply, ruling out *[/tooth/ /z/]. Note that this does not mean that the lexicon contains multiple morpho-syntactic morphemes that represent plurality (there is only one plural affix). (Peter Ackema and Ad Neeleman, Morphological Selection and Representational Modularity. Yearbook of Morphology 2001, ed. by Geert Booij and Jaap van Marle. Kluwer, 2002) Illustration and Qualification Two elements are important in the Elsewhere Principle. First, it inactivates rules in particular cases as a property of the rule system as a whole. Second, it does so in virtue of a logical relationship between rules: entailment between application conditions. The rule that is inactivated by a second rule applying to the same case applies to all cases to which the second rule applies.The English plural is formed by adding a morpheme -s to the end of a stem. A number of words have special plurals, such as goose, which has the plural geese. The existence of the nonregular plural (a remainder of an older plural; formation by means of vowel shift) rules out the regular form *gooses.The rule that assigns geese has the application condition stem goose, which is more specific than the application condition stem X4 for the regular plural formation. It follows by the Elsewhere Principle that the regular rule for plural formation does not apply to goose.There is an important caveat with the Elsewhere Principle: It does not always lead to the right conclusion. It is sometimes possible for the irregular form to coexist with the regular form, and sometimes there is neither an irregular nor a regular form. In these cases, the Elsewhere Principle would predict the absence of a regular form or the presence of a regular form, respectively, predictions that are not borne out by the facts. It follows that in these cases another explanation needs to be sought. (Henk Zeevat, Idiomatic Blocking and the Elsewhere Principle. Idioms: Structural and Psychological Perspectives, ed. by Martin Everaert et al. Lawrence Erlbaum, 1995) Further Reading GrammarMorphologyPhonologyRules of EnglishSyntax

The Conservative Approach to State Intervention after 1979...

The conservative approach to state intervention post 1979 has been on the whole to go for the minimum as is illustrated in their economic policy and this was included in their critique of government economic policy at that time. On the whole the government felt that levels of state intervention were far too high in regards to the economy which led to various negative consequences such as making industry uncompetitive and laid back since the government would bail them out at the first sign of smoke as Labour always did. They also felt it destroyed the incentives for individual entrepreneurship leading people into not achieving their full potential as it was not worth there while, this led to lack of money within the economy as well as top†¦show more content†¦It had two main aspects to it, the most effective way to control the economy is to ensure that the money supply does not rise faster then the growth in economic activity. This is designed to ensure that high inflation is avoided and that industry can operate within a stable economic environment. It also implies that governments should not interfere with the rest of the economy, it is fairly liberal since it promotes minimum state intervention. There were 3 main ways in fulfilling the theory of monetarism, the first was control of the money supply. This was done by initially calculating the money supply. This would help in setting annual targets over growth rate which could be published with the budget as part of a medium term financial strategy. Any deficits could be reduced via 3 ways, high interest rates to lower demand, financing the public sector borrowing requirement without printing money and allowing exchange rate to float as well as stop buying and selling foreign currency to effect the money supply. There were problems with this way though since it was not too effective, particularly in the early 80’s when the inflation rate grew twice the government target, starting at a higher rate from 79-85 then any time in the Labour government. Inflation only fell when the money supply began to increase it was ineffective as society was generally cashless so from 86 onwards the idea of money control was abandoned. The second main way of carryingShow MoreRelatedBritish Child Protection Policies Essay2423 Words   |  10 Pagessaw a raising concern with the cruelty inflicted to children by their guardians, that was expressed in the public campaigns carried out by the National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children . This, together with the progressive intervention of the state into family life during that period, for example through compulsory education, created the appropriated conditions for the passage of the first law to protect children from abuse and neglect . 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Copyright Law Case Study Free Essays

string(29) " his music to sell products\." Music Business Music Technology Production Year 3 K00121700 Case Study Ronan Mitchell Abstract Copyright Law is an important entity within the music industry. It protects the owner of authorship from infringement. Infringement arises when the copyright owner’s work is used without their consent. We will write a custom essay sample on Copyright Law Case Study or any similar topic only for you Order Now Although sounds cannot be copyrighted, some cases have shown that the argument of copyrighting one’s voice can sometimes hold weight in a court of law. Singer Tom Waits sued snack manufacturer Frito Lay for hiring a singer to impersonate him in an advert. Mr. Waits felt that his artistic copyright had been infringed upon. Frito Lay’s defense argued that a voice cannot be protected by copyright law as it is a sound and not a musical piece of work. They referred to a similar case involving Bette Midler in which she sued Ford motors for using an impersonator in a commercial to imitate her voice. Although Midler lost the case, it created ambiguity over the issue of an artist’s right their voice, if they believe it to be distinctive. Tom Waits, unlike Bette Midler, won the lawsuit and earned him $2. 6 million. This case served to highlight the complexities involved with advertising agencies using, not only an artist’s work, but also their identity. Introduction The music industry is notoriously rife with legal disputes. Many of these are due to infringement of copyright. A grey area arises, however, when it comes to advertising. In a lot of cases, an artist will gladly accept royalties and/or remuneration to have their song featured in an advertisement. But in certain instances, artists will have strong opinions about having their music feature in an advertisement. When this happens, advertising companies who use this artist’s work can find themselves in the middle of an ugly legal dispute. This case study endeavors to discuss some of the legal complexities involved when advertising companies use an artist’s musical work. Several cases exist in the United States where advertising agencies ran into legal disputes over music featured in an ad, even when not infringing upon standard copyright laws. I have chosen two cases to cross examine to highlight certain legal problems that certain advertising companies face. The first case examined for this study is Tom Waits Vs Frito-Lay, Inc. In this case Tom Waits sued the Frito-Lay snack manufacturer and their advertising agency for voice misappropriation and false endorsement. Despite not infringing on any copyright laws, Waits won the case and was awarded $2. 6 million in compensatory damages, punitive damages and attorney’s fees. (Roesler, 1992). The second case examined in this study will look at is Bette Midler Vs Ford Motor Co. This case, which preceded Waits lawsuit, is almost identical in that Ford’s advertising agency, Young Rubicam, Inc. hired an unknown singer to impersonate Midler on a version of her track â€Å"Do You Want To Dance†. (Lurie, 1994) Midler took legal action and sued Ford for $10 million, also citing voice misappropriation. Unlike Tom Waits case, US District Judge A. Wallace Tashima ruled against Midler, stating that the evidence presented wasn’t sufficient and that a voice is not a copyrightabl e entity (Los Angeles Times, 1989) Study To better understand the legalities that face companies in these instances, we must first develop a better understanding of what copyright law entails. In short, Copyright is a property right. It is a set of laws and regulations set in place to protect to form of expression of ideas. The ideas themselves cannot be protected by such laws. The idea must take on some tangible form, such as a recorded piece of music, a produced film, piece of art, etc. The owners of these rights are protected by copyright law from anyone who would copy their work and reproduce it for their own monetary gain without the owner’s express permission. It is the owner of the copyright who may authorize the use of their work by another party, but only they only reserve the right to do this at their discretion. Neff, 2012) Naturally, as there are many different mediums for expressing ideas, copyright law is divided into many different subsections. This is to cover all vessels for creative expression. On a simple scale, copyright subsists in four sections; Music, Film and Broadcast, Literary Publication and Original Databases. The music subset consists of Musical, Literary, Dramatic or Artistic Works. The musical copyright covers works of music that do not contain words. How notes are arranged to form melodies, song structures and chord progressions are protected by this copyright. Certain musical elements are not protected by this. If a guitarist has particularly unique guitar tone, he cannot have this protect by a copyright. A specific tone is not a tangible musical work and therefore cannot be protected. However, if the same guitarist recorded an original piece of music with that guitar tone, this recording is now a tangible body of work and can be protected by musical copyright. It is the music itself that is protected. Not the sound. (Neff, 2012) This is a particularly interesting element of Tom Waits lawsuit against Frito-Lay. The defendants argued that the â€Å"voice misappropriation† case was invalid as one cannot own the rights to certain style of singing. (UMKC School of Law, n. d. ) Tom Waits is an American singer, songwriter, composer and actor. Almost as much for his music, he is renowned for his unique gravelly, guttural singing voice. His voice has been described as sounding like â€Å"like it was soaked in a vat of bourbon, left hanging in the smokehouse for a few months, and then taken outside and run over with a car. † (Graff, G Durchholz, D 1998). Tracy-Locke, Frito Lay’s advertising agent, approached Tom Waits about using is his song â€Å"Step Right Up† in an advert for RioSalsa Doritos. They put together a version of the song which featured new lyrics relevant to the product and played this for Waits. Tom Waits refused outright as he is vehemently opposed using his music to sell products. You read "Copyright Law Case Study" in category "Free Case study samples" It was interesting that they chose that particular song, as the lyrics are a satirical indictment of advertising. The song features advertising slogans used sarcastically to describe a product that supposedly does everything from â€Å"shine your car† to â€Å"make you six foot five, blonde and beautiful†. Jacobs, 2000) When he refused, the Tracy-Locke company then hired a singer to impersonate Tom Waits style of sing over a song that bared a lot of similarities the Waits â€Å"Step Right Up†. Tom Waits took legal action and sued fo r voice misappropriation and false endorsement. (Roesler, 1992) As the lyrics for the song were altered to suit the ad, Waits literary copyright was unaffected. The literary copyright pertains to a work of words which are written, spoken or sung. This work does not specifically need to be written down for the copyright to apply. A recording of such work holds he same right as literary work that is written or printed. Written musical notation also falls under this subsection regardless if it is written down, printed or recorded. (Neff, 2012) As for the musical rights to the song, it transpired that Tom Waits, despite having written the piece, did not have authorship of the copyright for â€Å"Step Right Up†. In normal circumstances, authorship of the copyright to a sound recording is held by the produce of said recording. In this case, the authorship fell to Fifth Floor Music run by Herb, Martin and Evan Cohen. Frito Lay had in fact obtained the synchronisation license from Fifth Floor Music. This licence enabled them to reproduce a new song extremely similar, albeit not identical, to â€Å"Step Right Up† to which the new jingle lyrics were added. Tom Waits was unaware of this so was unable to step in and terminate the dealings. Although, having no authorship of the copyright, it is questionable as to whether or not this would have had any sway in the proceedings at all. (Jacobs, 2000) Similarly, in Bette Midler’s case, like Waits, Midler was not the owner of the copyright. She did not write the song nor did she pen the lyrics. Ford Co. bought the rights the song â€Å"Do You Want To Dance† from the publishing company that had ownership over the copyright. This meant that Ford had no obligation to contact Bette Midler with regards to their intentions to use the song for their commercial. (Lurie, 1994) Since Midler had no ownership rights, the defense argued that her â€Å"voice misappropriation† was preempted by the copyright act. However, this was rejected as they found that copyright cannot be preempted if the subject matter â€Å"does not come within the subject matter of copyright†¦.. ncluding works or authorship not fixed in any tangible medium of expression. † (UMKC School of Law, n. d. ) It was decided that, since it was not possible to copyright a particular sound (like that of the guitar tone), the voice was not suitable copyright subject matter. Thus, copyright preemption did not apply. (UMKC School of Law, n. d. ) Al though the court ruled in favor of the defendant, Midler’s case of â€Å"voice misappropriation† raised the question of a celebrity’s right to control over their identity, with respect to commercial use. This ambiguity was vital to the outcome of Waits lawsuit only three years later. Lurie, 1994) The copyright preemption issue in Midler’s case was referred to in Waits Vs Frito Lay. The defense requested that, since Tom Waits was not the lawful owner of the music copyright, the preemption of copyright law did not apply in this instance as it had with Midler. Waits case was not for infringement of a tangible copyrightable piece of work, but for infringement of voice. Again, voices are merely sounds; and sounds are not protected by copyright law. (UMKC School of Law, n. d. ) Despite this, the defense argued that, even though they had copied Waits musical style, they did not imitate his voice. This was found to be untrue, however. It transpired that Tracy-Locke’s executive producer was quite concerned with the legal implications of their singer’s striking similarity to Waits’ voice. He requested that they record another version of the jingle asking the singer to sing less like Waits. Unhappy with the result, Frito Lay insisted they use first version. (UMKC School of Law, n. d. ) On the day that the commercial was due to air, Tracy Locke’s managing vice president spoke with their attorney regarding what legal issues they might encounter. He was advised that there was a strong possibility of legal ramification due to recent case law that recognized a distinctive voice as protectable. However, as style was not protectable, their attorney informed them that the case might hold no merit. (UMKC School of Law, n. d. ) Despite the warning, Frito Lay chose the version that imitated Tom Waits’ distinctive voice. It was proposed that the jury be given a proposed instruction on the distinction between voice and style which read, â€Å"In contemporary music, there are a great many styles or â€Å"sounds,†Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ Style is not subject to ownership. No singer can appropriate for himself any style and exclude others from performing in the same style. Any singer is free to sing in the same style. † (UMKC School of Law, n. d. ) This instruction was rejected by the district court. Given that there were a lot of similarities between this case and Midler’s â€Å"voice-misappropriation† case, the jury was asked to decide whether or not they found Waits’ style to be distinctive. The defense argued that the omitted instruction was an error in judgment as this then left the jury unclear as to what the distinction was between voice and style. (UMKC School of Law, n. d. Waits argued that although no copyright infringement had occurred, he felt his artistic integrity had been compromised. It was put forth that anyone had heard the advertisement would automatically assume that it was Waits singing. Waits has strongly spoken out about artists taking money to allow their music to be used to sell product. He felt that, as the Doritos advertisement jingle sounded identical to his voice and musical style, that his fans would assume he participated in the advertisement and had willing endorsed the product. This, he asserted, was damaging to his reputation and his career as an artist. UMKC School of Law, n. d. ) The jury then listened to several of Tom Waits songs to determine both his musical and vocal style. The court then played them the Doritos advertisement in question for comparison. To convince them further, Waits attorneys had them hear testimonies from people who had in fact thought that it was Waits in the advertisement. (Roesler, 1992) This argument was persuasive enough to sway the jury. They were convinced when they heard to advertisement and the testimonies that, despite the fact that no copyrightable material had been infringed upon, Waits’ artistic integrity had been compromised. The jury found that the defendants had â€Å"acted with oppression, fraud or malice† (Roesler, 1992, p. 15). Tom Waits was awarded 2. 6 million dollars in compensatory damages and attorney’s fees. Conclusion In conclusion, we can see from the above cases that copyright is a bastion for musical artists. They help to protect an artist’s right to their work and a right to their form of expression from being exploited by large companies and advertising agencies who can sometimes try to profit from their work. Although, as they are vital to protecting an artist’s creative work, we can also seen from the cases studied that they can protect much more than that. Technically, in the eyes of the law, only a tangible body of work can by protected by these rights. However, as this study has shown, in certain rare cases, these rights can be manipulated to encompass, not only an artist’s work, but their identity, persona and artistic integrity when exploited. As made evident by the unusual Tom Waits lawsuit, it seems that advertising companies in particular must wade carefully when wishing to use unlicensed music for commercials. As their sole intention is for making money, they can be looked at very callously by court jury. Thus, certain unscrupulous can land in a lot of trouble despite not infringing on a copyrighted piece of work. Although situations such as this are quite unusual, they highlight the importance of copyright law within the music industry. References Graff, G Durchholz, D 1998, Musichound Rock: The Essential Album Guide. Visible Ink, Detroit * Jacobs, J. A 2000, â€Å"Copyright: Tom waits Vs Frito Lay†, viewed 04 January 2013, www. tomwaitsfan. com/tom%20waits%20library/www. tomwaitslibrary. com/copyright-fritolay. html * Los Angeles Times (1989), Bette Midler Loses Ford Sound-Alike Lawsuit : Celebrity: $10-million suit over TV car commercial is dismissed but action against the ad agency is allowed to stand, vie wed 06 January 2013, http://articles. atimes. com/1989-10-27/business/fi-901_1_bette-midler * Lurie, K. (1994) Waits v. Frito-Lay: The Song Remains the Same.. Cardozo Arts Ent. LJ, 13, 187. , Available at: http://heinonline. org/HOL/LandingPage? collection=journalshandle=hein. journals/caelj13div=26id=page= [Accessed: 6th January 2013]. * Neff, F. 2012, â€Å"Copyright and Related Rights Act 2000; Introduction to Copyright Overview And Originality in Copyright†, * Neff, F. 012, â€Å"Authorship and Ownership of Copyright; Copyright and Related Acts 2000 Sections 21 to 23†, * Roesler, M. (1992) Waits v. Frito Lay,. 978 F. 2d 1093 (9th Cir. 1992), Available at: http://www. markroesler. com/pdf/caselaw/Waits%20v. %20Frito-Lay%20Inc. %20_1992_. pdf [Accessed: 6th January 2013] * University of Missouri Kanas City School of Law (1992) Waits v. Frito Lay, Inc. United States Court Of Appeals For The Ninth Circuit, Available at: http://law2. umkc. edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/ communications/waits. html [Accessed: 4th January 2013]. How to cite Copyright Law Case Study, Free Case study samples

Low Risk Aversion Encourages the Choice for Entrepreneurship

Question: Describe about the Low Risk Aversion Encourages the Choice for Entrepreneurship: an Empirical Test of a Truism? Answer: Introduction Cultural factors and determinants impact the business execution quality. Different cultural factors are important to be analysed, as it helps in analysing the challenges associated with handling people at the workplace. There are different types of cultural factors and behavioural pattern that determines task execution. The behaviour aspect of the employees is determined by the cultural practices followed by the company (Eckel et al., 2005). Discussion The determinant factors are associated with analysing the differences individuals and companies face at the time of evaluating the risks. The risk factors impact the business performance and the performance of the employees and individuals. Behavioural aspects of the individuals depend upon various factors which needs to be analysed and corrective measures has to be introduced for implementing the changes. The cultural behaviour of the individuals is associated with cultural practices introduced in the company. The challenges and limitations associated with the process have to be analysed, as this will help in implementing the changes that re necessary for increasing the business performance (Loewenstein et al., 2001). Different factors that affect the business cultural practices are Attitude The attitude of the individuals towards others are some of the important factors that helps in determining the behaviour. This is one of the important tasks that need to be undertaken by the management of the company. The factors affecting the cultural views of an individual are the cultural practices, values, and practices followed. The views of an individual about the cultural practices followed by another individual are an important factor, which needs to evaluate (Guiso et al., 2002) Culture values The practices and the values, an individual believes in is associated with the cultural values. Through this process, the factors affecting the behaviour and attitude of an individual are evaluated. This would assist in evaluating the challenges that can impact the business performance and communication process adopted by the management. Barriers Communication process has to be simple and effective. This would reduce the barriers that might exist at the workplace. The challenges have to be undertaken and analysed in the corrective manner. The management of the company has to reduce the barriers that occur due to communication limitations (Schupp and Wagner, 2002). Ethnicity The values associated with cultural practices and ethnicity is evaluated. This helps in determining the factors that could affect the business execution process. Workplace culture Developing and implementing corrective measures for increasing the workplace culture is an important factor. This would help in providing fair opportunities to the members working with the company. Changes can be adopted and introduced by the management in an effective manner, as this will help in increasing the business performance (Cramer et al., 2002). Factors that affect the cultural behaviour of an individual are- Behavior The behaviour of the individuals depends upon the process followed for discussing different factors related to business Practices This includes analysing the expectations of the people and introduces an effective interaction process. Values The cultural factors are related to identifying the values followed by the people and the process followed for respecting others. Barriers It includes unwillingness of the people to interact with others and adopt the right process for communication Communication The process followed for interacting with people and method adopted for communicating with people for solving the cultural factors. Conclusion By analysing the cultural values and differences it is possible for the company and the individual to introduce an effective system for handing the differences. The challenges faced by the members can be effectively handled by introducing the right process for increasing the performance of the staffs. For this, the factors associated with the cultural differences can be handled and overpowered in the right manner. The process followed has to be analysed, as it will help in implementing the changes that are necessary for improving the performance. References Cramer, J. S., Joop Hartog and Nicole Jonker and C. Mirjam van Praag (2002): Low Risk Aversion Encourages the Choice for Entrepreneurship: an Empirical Test of a Truism, Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization, 48(1), 2936. Eckel, C., C. Johnson, and C. Montmarquette (2005): Saving Decisions of the Working Poor: Short- and Long-Term Horizons, in Research in Experimental Economics Volume 10: Field Experiments in Economics, ed. by J. Carpenter, G. Harrison, and J. List, pp. 219260, Oxford. Elsevier Science Guiso, L., T. Jappelli, and L. Pistaferri (2002): An Empirical Analysis of Earnings and Employment Risk, Journal of Business and Economic Statistics, 20(2), 241 253 Loewenstein, G. F., C. K. Hsee, E. U. Weber, and N. Welch (2001): Risk as Feelings, Psychological Bulletin, 127(2), 267286. Niederle, M., and L. Vesterlund (2007): Do Women Shy Away From Competition? Do Men Compete Too Much?, Quarterly Journal of Economics, 122(3), forthcoming. Schupp, J., and G. G. Wagner (2002): Maintenance of and Innovation in Long-Term Panel Studies The Case of the German Socio-Economic Panel (GSOEP), Allgemeines Statistisches Archiv, 86(2), 163175.